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NB* These articles were downloaded from a number of internet websites for the benefit of the webmaster so they are for personal use
Film Viewing
How to Watch Movies Intelligently and Critically
Introduction to Cinema Literacy 101:
Watching a film's moving image, other than just for pure entertainment's sake, is usually enhanced by viewing it with an informed awareness of how a film works, and with some understanding, skill and background training in the elements of the craft of film-making. Each film viewer or movie-goer should strive to be a 'critic' (in the best and most general sense of the word) and be receptive to the full experience.
Viewing a film critically and attentively means to realize cinema with greater thought and awareness, and to elevate one's celluloid experience. It also means possessing an informed knowledge of the film's complex and dense 'language,' its conventions, codes, symbols, cinematic attributes, and other factors. Furthermore, it means to stay alert, to take apart the film's components and interpret how it was all intentionally assembled together. Anyone can learn the language, techniques, and structure of cinema of both the past and present.
HOW TO WATCH A FILM
Step One
This short list is provided for the average movie-goer to stimulate thought about film. It gives helpful hints on the art of reading, analyzing, watching, critically viewing, and deconstructing a film. Here are some simple suggestions for viewing a film intelligently:
Viewing:
Watch a deserving film more than once, and preferably with others so that the experience may be discussed afterwards. (Note: Not all films deserve such scrutiny.) During the first viewing, become familiar with the basic plot, main characters, important action, etc. - in other words, acquire a brief synopsis of its story including time and place, the characters and their interactions, and the film's main themes without taking notes. The second time (if necessary), pay more detailed attention to what is being projected; take notes and make observations; begin to think in a more concentrated way about the film's structure, acting, directing, the camera shots and angles, etc.
Dialogue:
Use the closed-caption feature with DVDs, in order to better understand the dialogue. (Note: Oftentimes, the subtitles are abbreviated and do not match the actual spoken words.)
Film Extras:
Play the added special features of most DVDs, including audio commentary, the original theatrical trailer or teaser, deleted scenes, and other related material.
Title and Credits:
Consider a film's main title and its opening credits: Why was the specific title chosen (were there any other alternatives considered?), and how do the credits establish a tone or mood? What are the first sounds and images in the film? Can you find any motifs in the credits? Do the end credits have any unusual features (e.g., out-takes, gags, additional footage, etc.). [Note: Up until the 1950s, films had a very set format for the credits: (1) credits at the start, (2) a "The End" title card following the film, and (3) a cast list with character names. Recently, most films immediately begin with a plot sequence, with 'opening' credits ("main title") super-imposed over them after a few minutes, and extensive rolling 'full credits' ("end title"), usually white text on a black background, after the film concludes.]
Freeze-Frames:
Be prepared to pause (the freeze technique allows one to 'see' how everything is positioned in a frame) and to replay various scenes, shots, or sequences.
Soundtrack:
Prepare to listen carefully to the film's soundtrack and how the music and score enhance the actions of the characters and the film's mood.
Screensize:
Understand that films made before the late 1950s had a width-to-height aspect ratio of 4:3 (or 1.33:1) called 'Academy Ratio,' similar to a television screen, while more modern films have non-standard, wide-screen ratios (that are often viewed in the pan-and-scan mode). Watch a film in a movie theater, if possible, where it was designed to be projected, or purchase the film in a 'wide-screen' format.
Film Stock:
Consider why the film was made as either color or black/white (if a choice was possible); how is color used?
Production Values:
Does the film have high-production values (with a glossy and expensive look), or is it considered a low-budget, amateurish, B-film?
Running Time and Timeline:
Know the entire run time of the film. Keep track of the timeline of the film's parts - with the digital counter of a VCR or DVD player.
Overall:
View the film as a whole, realizing that it is composed of the sum of all of its parts. Some individual parts may be 'great' but the film must hold together, and be cohesive and meaningful in its entirety.
Objectivity:
Maintain objectivity to what is being presented, without pre-judging the film based on what you've heard about it (from critics or friends), your preconceptions about the actors in it, the reputation of the director, etc.
How to Watch a Film
Step Two
Before investigating a film more thoroughly for a serious film buff, read about various aspects of film-making, including film terms essential to know in order to fully understand the 'language' of film.
How to Watch a Film
Step Three
Here are additional, more detailed components to discover when critically viewing a film, to improve one's cinematic sensibility and literacy, and to unpack further layers of meaning:
The Basics:
The film's title, year of release, main stars/performers, director, rating, running time, genre classification (see some of these factors below), and brief summary.
Studio:
Know the studio responsible for the film; why was the film made?
Production:
Know the film's dates of production; study the production credits to learn more about the film's production; research any interesting facts about the 'making of' the film.
Marketing:
Discover how the film was marketed and/or distributed - what were its taglines, posters and trailers?
Budget and Box-Office:
What was the film's budget? did it go over-budget? how did the film do at the box-office?
Film's Context:
What was the social, political, and/or historical context for the film? Was there any controversy surrounding the film's release?
Film Ratings:
Consider the film's official MPAA rating (G, PG, PG-13, R, NC-17, or unrated) and/or its critics' ratings (i.e., stars, "thumbs-up", letter grades, number ratings, etc.) in your evaluation.
Initial Reception:
What was the film's original reception, and how is the film perceived today?
Reviews and Critics:
Discern what major reviewers, press reviews, or critics have said about the film.
Lasting Influence or Referential:
Learn if the film had an influential impact on future films, or whether it paid homage to (or referenced) a previous film in some way.
Genre:
Decide on the film's principal type, its genre and sub-genre categories (such as action, adventure, musical, comedy, or a hybrid); how does the film fit (or not fit) into its conventional, recognizable classifications?
One-Liner:
If you were to write a short 'one-liner' summary to describe the film (often called a synopsis or film treatment), what would it be?
Type of Film:
Read about whether the film is a sequel, prequel, re-make, a spoof, an homage film, etc.; are there other versions of the film's story or tale?
Narrative Origins and Script:
Read about the narrative origins of the film (literary or otherwise) - is it adapted from some other work, or based on an original idea? If adapted, how well does it follow the original? If original, how fresh and innovative is it? Learn about the script-screenwriter (and other works) - if a screenplay is available, compare it to the actual film. Does the film's screenplay effectively communicate the story through action and dialogue?
Fact or Fiction?:
If the film is based upon an historical event or person, how true to life is the film? is the film fact or fiction? does it mythologize an historical event or period?
Plot or Story:
How is the film structured? decipher how the story's plot is told (through normal exposition, by flashback, with a narrator, chronologically or linear, character-driven, objectively or subjectively, or otherwise); what is the vantage point from which the film is presented? determine the film's pivotal scene(s), and if parallelism exists between two or more scenes (the film cuts back and forth between two scenes that are happening simultaneously or at different times); are the transitions between scenes effective? is there a climax and resolution (and denouement)? does the film's narrative provide continuity from scene to scene, and is there closure by film's end?
Special (Visual) Effects:
Learn about the special (visual) effects within the film and determine how skillfully they are handled - consider whether the advanced, computer-generated technical aspects of the film are essential to the film's plot, or whether their unrestrained use overwhelms the dramatic, story-telling elements and sacrifices substance - namely, the plot and/or characters.
Awards and Honors:
Find out about the film's major awards (i.e., the Academy Awards), nominations, or other honors bestowed upon it.
Theme(s):
Look for the film's central theme, motif, idea or dominant message, as well as the film's sub-text (the message 'beneath the surface'); identify prominent symbols and metaphors within the film and determine their purpose and overall effect; what popular ideologies are reproduced and reinforced in the film? does the film have an original theme or a traditional one? is the film's theme adequately or successfully supported by the story, acting, and other film elements?
Style and Tone:
Decide the overall style and tone of the film (noirish, sophisticated, suspenseful, slapstick, etc.).
Characters and Acting Performances:
Write down the film's main characters (are their names significant?), a brief description for each one, their major motivations or ethical values/assumptions, and character development; is there a hero or anti-hero? are the characters believable and three-dimensional? is the acting memorable, exceptional, or inferior? also consider a few of the minor characters and how they are used; ask yourself about 'star quality' - why were specific performers (or stars) chosen (or cast) to play each role - were they appropriately cast (i.e., the right age or size, or with the proper accent)? were their performances appropriate for the roles? was the acting professional or non-professional? does one performer steal the spotlight from others?
Stereotyping:
Were the popular stereotypes (attitudinal or imaged) about different kinds of people (fathers, gays, Native Americans, the elderly, women, the mentally-ill, blacks, rural folks, etc.) challenged or reinforced? Were there any caricatures?
Directing:
Learn about the director's entire repertoire of films, stylistic characteristics, and favorite techniques; is the director a veteran or a novice? how has the director shaped, auteured, interpreted or controlled every aspect of the film's making, and the telling of its story?
Cinematography:
Identify the film's cinematographer, stylistic and visual characteristics, use of lighting and color (or black and white) to create a mood, use of a static or moving camera, amount of closeups, and favorite techniques - overall, is the cinematography effective?
Score and/or Soundtrack:
Identify the film's composer, and listen carefully to how the music/score functions within the film to underscore the action and the emotional tone or mood - is the film's soundtrack appropriate, subtle and effective, or inappropriate, overwhelming and domineering? Note if silence is used, at times, in place of sound.
Mis-en-Scene:
Understand the 'mis-en-scene' of the film - how were the scenes 'orchestrated' or set up for the camera? (Mis-en-scene includes the setting, costumes, make-up, lighting, and camera positioning and movement)
Locations or Settings:
Identify the settings (geographical and temporal), locations (on-site) or studio sets used throughout, and important props - are they appropriate and effective?
Film Conventions:
Notice the typical conventions used in the film, for instance, (1) cars that crash will almost always burst into flames, or (2) all telephone numbers in America begin with the digits 555.
Visual Clues:
Be attentive to visual clues, including establishing shots (the initial shot in a scene), camera lighting (diffuse, high-key, low-key, muted, highlighting, spot-lighting, use of light and dark areas), focusing (zooms, rack-focus, blurry, deep-focus), camera distance and framing (full shots, medium shots, closeups), compositions (positioning of elements, symmetrical vs. asymmetrical, use of shadows, doors, low ceilings, windows, mirrors, etc.), camera angles (tilted, wide angle, telephoto, POV shots, low/high angled, etc.), camera movements and shots (dolly shots, crane shots, pans, tracking, hand-helds, freeze-frames, reaction shots, the number and order of shots, the use of shot/reverse shots in conversations or interviews, etc.), colors used (or color filtering), and film speed (reversed, or fast/slow-motion); also compare screen time to 'story time.'
Editing:
Note the film's transitional edits (i.e., jump cuts, wipes, fade-ins, fade-outs, fade-to-black, dissolves, lap dissolves, mixes, use of montage or rapid cutting between shots), juxtapositions (cross-cutting, cutaways, match cuts), aural editing (how music, noise, or transitional dialogue creates the illusion of continuity between cuts), and the pace and rhythm of editing (the typical length and speed of sequences or shots); is the film seamlessly and smoothly edited?
Audio Clues:
Listen for the film's audio clues, including sound effects, music, dialogue or voice, and silence; study the use of sound bridges, on-screen vs. off-screen sounds (to provide an impression of 3-D space), and post-synchronized sound vs. direct sound; note when sound transitions do not match shot transitions; distinguish between diegetic sound (i.e., dialogue and sound effects) and non-diegetic sound (i.e., the musical score, narrative voice-overs).
Costuming:
Concentrate on the use of period costumes, body physiques, hair-stylings, etc.
Dialogue:
Identify the most important line(s) of dialogue; note how the dialogue is delivered (fast, mumbled, overlapping, loud/soft, etc.); are there any recurring lines of dialogue and how do they function?
Created in 1996-2005 © by Tim Dirks. All rights reserved.
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FILM TERMINOLOGY
Integrative Arts 10
Film Terminology and Other Resources
"The cinema? Three cheers for darkened rooms!"
-Andre Breton
Internet Movie Database (IMDB)
Entertainment Weekly
Animation - The process of photographing drawings or objects a frame at a time; by changing a drawing or moving an object slightly before each frame is taken, the illusion of motion is realized.
Auteur (French for "author") - literally the director, who is regarded as the "author" of a film because he/she has primary control and responsibility for the final product. The Auteur theory insists that a film be considered in terms of the entire canon of a director and that each Auteur earns that title by displaying a unique cinematic style.
Background Music- Music accompanying action on the screen, but coming from no discernible source within the film.
Blocking - The arrangements made for the composition of a scene, especially the placement and movements of actors.
Boom - A long mobile beam or pole used to hold a microphone or camera.
Cinema Verite - A candid-camera style of filmmaking using hand-held cameras, natural sound, grainy high-contrast black-and-white film, and the appearance of no rehearsal and only basic editing.
Cinematographer (camera man or director of photography) - The person who supervises all aspects of photography from the operation of cameras to lighting.
Clip - A brief segment excerpted from a film.
Commentator - A voice (the person speaking may be either seen or unseen) commenting on the action of a film. A commentator, unlike a narrator, provides supposedly unbiased information, maintaining apparent perspective and distance from what occurs on the screen.
Composition - The placement of people or objects within the frame and the arrangements for actual movements within the frame or by the camera.
Continuity - The narrative growth of a film created through a combination of visuals and sound (resembling the "story" in print literature).
Continuity Sketches (See Storyboard.)
Crane Shot - A shot taken from a boom that can move both horizontally and vertically.
Cross-Cutting (parallel editing) - A method of editing in which the point of view (p.o.v.) switches alternately from events at one location to those of another related action. The action is ususlly simultaneous and used to create a dynamic tension as in the chase scene in D.W. Griffith's A Girl and Her Trust. (See Intercutting for the distinction between cuts.)
Cut - An individual strip of film consisting of a single shot; the separation of two pieces of action as a "transition" (used when one says "cut from the shot of the boy to the shot of the girl"); a verb meaning to join shots together in the editing process; or an order to end a take ("cut!").
Cutter (See Editor.)
Dailies (See Rushes.)
Deep Focus (depth photography) - Keeping images close by and far away in sharp focus simultaneously.
Depth of Field - The area within which objects are in focus; a large depth of field allows a great range of objects to be in focus simultaneously, while a shallow depth of field offers a very limited area in focus. Depth of field normally depends on how far "open" a lens is (a lens works much like an eye, with the pupil opening or contracting to control light). An "open" lens (for example, f 1.4) creates a shallow depth of field while a "stopped down" (contracted) lens (for example f 16) creates a large depth of field.
Director - The person responsible for overseeing all aspects of the making of a film.
Dissolve (lap dissolve) - A method of making a transition from one shot to another by briefly superimposing one image upon another and then allowing the first image to disappear. A dissolve is a stronger form of transition than a cut and indicates a distinct separation in action. Dolly A platform on wheels serving as a camera mount capable-of movement in any direction.
Dolly Shot - A moving shot taken from a dolly. A Dolly-In moves the camera toward the subject, while a Dolly-Out moves the camera away from the subject. A dolly shot creates a sense of movement through space by capturing changes in perspective.
Double Exposure (superimposition) - Two distinct images appearing simultaneously with one superimposed upon the other.
Dubbing (lip sync) - The process of matching voice with the lip movements of an actor on the screen; dubbing also refers to any aspect of adding or combining sounds to create a film's final soundtrack.
Editing (continuity editing, narrative montage) - The process of splicing individual shots together into a complete film. Editing (as opposed to Montage) puts shots together to create a smoothly flowing narrative in an order making obvious sense in terms of time and place.
Editor (cutter) - The person responsible for assembling the various visual and audial components of a film into a coherent and effective whole.
Fade - A transitional device in which either an image gradually dims until the viewer sees only a black screen (Fade-Out) or an image slowly emerges from a black screen to a clear and bright picture (Fade-In). A fade provides a strong break in continuity, usually setting off sequences.
Fast Motion - (accelerated motion) Movements on the screen appearing more rapid than they would in actual life. For example, a man riding a bicycle will display legs pumping furiously while he flashes through city streets at the speed of a racing car. A filmmaker achieves fast motion by running film through his camera at a speed slower than the standard 24 frames per second; subsequent projection of 24 frames per second speeds up the action.
Fill Light - Light used to control shadows by "filling in" certain dark areas.
Film Stock - Unexposed strips of celluloid holding light-sensitive emulsions.
Filters - Transparent glass of gelatin placed in front of or behind a lens to control coloration; some filters cut out certain types of light (such as ultra- violet); others create a soft, hazy appearance, and still others provide a dominant color when used with color films.
Fine Cut - The final assembling of all the various audial and visual components of a film.
Fish-Eye - An extreme wide-angle lens taking in (and distorting) an immense area.
Flashback - A segment of film that breaks normal chronological order by shifting directly to time past. Flashback may be subjective (showing the thoughts and memory of a character) or objective (returning to earlier events to show their relationship to the present).
Flash Forward - A segment of film that breaks normal chronological order by shifting directly to a future time. Flash forward, like flashback, may be subjective (showing precognition or fears of what might happen) or objective (suggesting what will eventually happen and thus setting up relationships for an audience to perceive).
Flashframe - A shot lasting only a few frames; the shortness of a flashframe makes its content difficult to assimilate. When many flashframes follow each other, they create a feeling of intense action and often visually resemble the effects of stroboscopic light; when used alone, flashframes usually act as flashbacks or Hash forwards.
Flip - A transitional device (now used rarely) in which an image appears to flip over, revealing another image on its backside; the effect is much like flipping a coin from one side to the other.
Focal Length - The distance from the focal point of a lens to the plane of the film (for viewers and cameramen, this is seen as the amount of area a lens can photograph from a given distance.)
Focus-Through (racking) - A change of the field in focus taking the viewer from one object to another that was previously out of focus.
Frame - A single photographic image imprinted on a length of film; also the perimeter of an image as seen when projected on a screen (a filmmaker sees the frame as the boundaries of his camera's view-finder). Freeze Frame A single frame repeated for an extended time, consequently looking like a still photograph.
High-Angle Shot - A shot taken from above a subject, creating a sense of "looking down" upon whatever is photographed.
Intercutting- The alternation between actions taking place at two distinct locations to make one composite scene. For example, cutting between two people involved in the same telephone conversation. The distinction between this and cross cutting is one of compression of time. The intercut can be used to speed up a scene and eliminate large pieces of time that would slow a story down.
Iris - A technique used to show an image in only one small round area of the screen. An Iris-Out begins as a pinpoint and then moves outward to reveal the full scene, while an Iris-In moves inward from all sides to leave only a small image on the screen. An iris can be either a transitional device (using the image held as a point of transition) or a way of focusing attention on a specific part of a scene without reducing the scene in size.
Jump Cut - An instantaneous cut from one action to another, at first seemingly unrelated, action. Jump cuts will usually call attention to themselves because of the abrupt change in time and/or place.
Key Light - The primary source of illumination
High-Key - light brilliantly illuminates a set;
Low-Key - light provides dim lighting, usually with heavy, dark shadows.
Lap Dissolve (See Dissolve.)
Library Shot - (stock shot) Any shot not taken for a particular film but used in it.
Lip Sync (See Dubbing.)
Local Music - Music originating within a scene and audible to both the characters in the film and the audience.
Location - A place outside-the studio where shooting occurs.
Long Lens - Any lens with a focal length greater than normal; a normal focal length approximates the size relationships seen by the human eye, while a long focal length creates a narrower angle of vision, causing a larger image. A long lens alters perspective by flattening a subject into its background. (See telephoto.)
Loop Film - A film with ends joined, creating a loop that can be run continuously through a projector.
Low-Angle Shot - A shot taken from below a subject, creating a sense of "looking up to" whatever is photographed.
Mask - A device placed in front of a lens to reduce the horizontal or vertical size of the frame or to create a particular shape (for example, periscope eyepiece, binoculars, or gun-sight).
Match Cut - A cut intended to blend two shots together unobtrusively (opposed to a Jump Cut).
Matte Shot - A process for combining two separate shots on one print, resulting in a picture that looks as if it had been photographed all at once. For example, a shot of a man walking might be combined with a shot of a card table in such a way that the man appears to be six inches high and walking on a normal size card table.
Metteur-En-Scene - A director or filmmaker (often used to indicate a director who does not deserve the title auteur).
Mise-En-Scene - The aura emanating from details of setting, scenery, and staging.
Mix - The process of combining all sounds at their proper levels from several tracks and placing them onto a master track.
Montage - (dynamic editing, expressive montage, conditional montage) A method of putting shots together in such a way that dissimilar materials are juxtaposed to make a statement. A shot of a man followed by a shot of a peacock, for example, declares that the man is pompous. (See Editing.)
MOS - Any segment of film taken without sound. (The letters MOS come from early foreign directors who wanted pictures taken "mit out sound.")
Moviola - A special projection machine (used by film editors) that holds several reels of film simultaneously and can run at variable speeds, backward or forward, and stop at any frame. (Moviola was originally a brand name but now refers only to a type of projection machine.)
Negative Image - An image with color value reversed from positive to negative, making white seem black and black appear white.
Neorealism - A film style using documentary techniques for fictional purposes. Most neorealist films rely on high-contrast black-and-white film, nonprofessional actors, and natural settings. Neorealism began as a movement among a group of filmmakers in Italy after World War II.
New Wave (Nouvelle vague) - A recent movement in French filmmaking based mainly on the notion of the Auteur. The movement was begun in the late 1950s by a group of young filmmakers (including Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Goddard, Louis Malle, and Alain Resnais) interested in exploring new potentials for film art.
Nonsynchronous Sound - Sound that combines sounds from one source with visuals from another, such as intense argument with only a man walking alone visible, or the sounds of a rooster accompanying visuals of a classroom lecturer. (See Synchronous Sound.)
Objective Camera - The attempt to suggest that the camera acts only as a passive recorder of what happens in front of it. The use of objective camera relies on de-emphasis of technique, involving minimal camera movement and editing.
Optical Printer - A device used to "print" the images of one film onto another film through direct photography.
Out-Take - A take that is not included in the final version of a film.
Pan - A shot in which a stationary camera turns horizontally, revealing new areas.
Parallel Editing (See Cross-Cutting.)
Perspective - The way objects appear to the eye in terms of their relative positions and distances.
Pixillatxon - A technique using cartoon methods to create movement by objects or people. For example, a man will stand with feet together and be photo- graphed, then he will repeat this action over and over, but move slightly forward each time; the result will show the man apparently moving forward (usually rapidly) without moving any part of his body.
Process Shot - A shot coordinated with another image created by Rear Projection, making the resulting picture look like a single simultaneous shot. A typical process shot shows the faces of two people riding in a car; behind them (as seen through the rear window) moves the usual traffic of a city street. The traffic has been added by rear projection, creating a process shot.
Producer - The person who is responsible for all of the business aspects of making and releasing a film.
Racking (See Focus-Through.)
Reaction Shot - A shot showing one or more characters reacting to an action or statement. Rear Projection (back projection) The process of projecting an image onto a translucent screen from the back side rather than over the heads of the viewers as is usually done. Filmmakers use rear projection to film an action against a projected background, thus recording on film both the stage action and the rear-projected image. (See Process Shot.)
Reverse Angle Shot - A shot of an object or person taken in the direction opposite that of the preceding shot (for example, a shot of the gates of a prison from within followed by a reverse angle shot showing the gates from outside). Rough Cut The initial assembling of the shots of a film, done without added sound.
Rushes - (dailies) The lengths of footage taken during the course of filming and processed as the shooting of a film proceeds.
Scenario (See Script.) - Scene A series of Shots taken at one basic time and place. A scene is one of the basic structural units of film, with each scene contributing to the next largest unit of film, the sequence.
Script - (scenario, shooting script) - A written description of the action, dialogue, and camera placements for a film.
Sequence - A structural unit of a film using time, location, or some pattern to link together a number of scenes.
Shooting - Ratio The ratio in a finished film of the amount of film shot to the length of the final footage. Shot A single uninterrupted action of a camera as seen by a viewer (see Take). Shots are labeled according to the apparent distance of the subject from the camera: extreme long-shot (ELS) also called an establishing shot; long-shot (LS); medium long-shot (MLS); medium or mid-shot (MS); medium close-up (MCU); close-up (CU); and extreme close-up (ECU). Although distinctions among shots must be defined in terms of the subject, the human body furnishes the usual standard of definition: ELS, a person is visible but setting dominates; LS, person fills vertical line of the frame; MLS, knees to head; MS, waist up; MCU, shoulders up; CU, head only; ECU, an eye.
Slow Motion - Movements on the screen appearing slower than they would in actual life. For example, a diver will seem to float to the water gently rather than fall at the speed dictated by gravity. A filmmaker achieves slow motion by running film through his camera at a speed faster than the standard 24 frames per second; subsequent projection at 24 frames per second slows down the action.
Soft Focus - A slightly blurred effect achieved by using a special filter or lens, or by shooting with a normal lens slightly out of focus.
Still - A photograph taken with a still (versus motion) camera.
Stock Shot (See Library Shot.)
Storyboard (continuity sketches) - A series of sketches (resembling a cartoon strip) showing potential ways various shots might be filmed.
Subjective Camera - Shots simulating what a character actually sees; audience, character, and camera all "see" the same thing. Much subjective camera involves distortion, indicating abnormal mental states. Shots suggesting how a viewer should respond are also called "subjective" (for example, a high-angle shot used to make a boy look small and helpless).
Superimposition (See Double Exposure.)
Swish Pan - A quick pan from one position to another caused by spinning the camera on its vertical axis and resulting in a blurring of details between the two points. Sometimes a swish pan is used as a transition by creating a blur and then ending the blur at an action in an entirely different place or time.
Synchronous Sound - Sound coordinated with and derived from a film's visuals. (See Nonsynchronous Sound.)
Take - A single uninterrupted action of a camera as seen by a filmmaker. A take is unedited footage as taken from the camera, while a shot is the uninterrupted action left after editing.
Telephoto Lens (See Long Lens) - A lens with an extremely long focal length capable of making distant objects appear nearer and thus larger. (A telephoto has greater power of magnification than a Long Lens.)
Tilt Shot - A shot taken by angling a stationary camera up (tilt-up) or down (tilt-down).
Tracking Shot (traveling shot, trucking shot) - Any shot using a mobile camera that follows (or moves toward or away from) the subject by moving on tracks or by being mounted on a vehicle.
Trailer - A short segment of film that theaters use to advertise a feature film.
Trucking Shot - Any moving shot with the camera on a mobile mounting, but chiefly a moving shot taken with a camera mounted on a truck.
Two Shot - A shot of two people, usually from the waist up.
Voice-Over - Any spoken language not seeming to come from images on the screen.
Wide-Angle Lens - Any lens with a focal length shorter than normal, thus allowing a greater area to be photographed. A wide-angle lens alters perspective by making nearby objects seem relatively larger than those far away and by increasing the apparent distance between objects both laterally and in depth.
Wipe - A transitional device in which one image slowly replaces another by pushing the other out of the way.
Zoom Freeze - A zoom shot that ends in a freeze frame.
Zoom Shot - A shot accomplished with a lens capable of smoothly and continuously changing focal lengths from wide-angle to telephoto (zoom in) or telephoto to wide-angle (zoom out).
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Cinematic Terms Definition and Explanation Example (if applicable)
180 degree rule a screen direction rule that camera operators must follow - an imaginary line on one side of the axis of action is made (e.g., between two principal actors in a scene), and the camera must not cross over that line - otherwise, there is a distressing visual discontinuity and disorientation; similar to the axis of action (an imaginary line that separates the camera from the action before it) that should not be crossed Camera placement must adhere to the 180 degree rule
24 frames per second refers to the standard frame rate or film speed - the number of frames or images that are projected or displayed per second; in the silent era before a standard was set, many films were projected at 16 or 18 frames per second, but that rate proved to be too slow when attempting to record optical film sound tracks; aka 24fps or 24p
3-D a film that has a three-dimensional, stereoscopic form or appearance, giving the life-like illusion of depth; often achieved by viewers donning special red/blue (or green) or polarized lens glasses; when 3-D images are made interactive so that users feel involved with the scene, the experience is called virtual reality; 3-D experienced a heyday in the early 1950s; aka 3D, three-D, Stereoscopic 3D, Natural Vision 3D, or three-dimensional Examples: the first major 3D feature film was Bwana Devil (1953) [the first was Power of Love (1922)], a version of Hitchcock's Dial M for Murder (1954) and Creature From the Black Lagoon (1954), House of Wax (1953), Cat Women of the Moon (1953), the musical Kiss Me Kate (1953), Comin' At Ya! (1981), Spy Kids 3D: Game Over (2003), a segment of Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare (1991)
abstract (form) a type of film that rejects traditional narrative in favor of using poetic form (color, motion, sound, irrational images, etc.) to convey its meaning or feeling; aka non-linear; see also avant-garde Examples: Rene Clair's Entr'acte (1924), Ballet Mecanique (1924), Luis Bunuel's Un Chien Andalou (1928, Fr.)
absurd
(absurdism) a stage, philosophical and literary term originally, adopted by film-makers, in which ordinary settings become bizarre, illogical, irrational, unrealistic, meaningless, and incoherent Examples: Rhinoceros (1974) - an American Film Theatre recording with Zero Mostel and Gene Wilder, of Eugene Ionesco's 'theatre of the absurd' comedy play
Academy Awards the name given to the prestigious film awards presented each year by AMPAS (the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences), a professional honorary organization within the industry, since 1927. The annual awards show, in slang, is sometimes referred to as a kudo-cast.
The 13.5 inch award statuettes were officially nicknamed Oscars after 1939
act a main division within the plot of a film; a film is often divided by 'plot points' (places of dramatic change) rather than acts; long films are divided mid-way with an intermission
action (1) any movement or series of events (usually rehearsed) that take place before the camera and propel the story forward toward its conclusion; (2) the word called out (by a megaphone) at the start of the current take during filming to alert actors to begin performing; (3) also refers to the main component of action films
A megaphone to call out the word "ACTION"
actor refers either to a male performer, or to any male or female who plays a character role in an on-screen film; alternate gender-neutral terms: player, artist, or performer.
Cary Grant
actress refers to any female who portrays a role in a film.
Ava Gardner
adaptation the presentation of one art form through another medium; a film based upon (or adapted from) a stage play (or from another medium such as a short story, book, article, history, novel, video game, comic strip/book, etc.) which basically preserves both the setting and dialogue of the original; can be in the form of a script (screenplay) or a proposal treatment. Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966) is a very faithful rendering of Edward Albee's play of the same name; also, Gone With the Wind (1939) was adapted from Margaret Mitchell's novel, and Apocalypse Now (1979) was taken from Conrad's Hearts of Darkness.
ad lib a line of dialogue improvised by an actor during a performance; can be either unscripted or deliberate; improvisation consists of ad-libbed dialogue (and action) that is invented or created by the performer
aerial shot a camera shot filmed in an exterior location from far overhead (from a bird's eye view), as from a helicopter (most common), blimp, balloon, plane, or kite; a variation on the crane shot; if the aerial shot is at the opening of a film, aka an establishing shot
Examples: the hunting scene in Tom Jones (1963), the helicopter raid in Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), the title card for Dr. Strangelove, Or: (1964) (see above), or the opening aerial shot of Manhattan in West Side Story (1961), of Polanski's Rosemary's Baby (1968), and of American Beauty (1999).
Alan Smithee film the pseudonym used by directors who refuse to put their name on a film and want to disassociate themselves, usually when they believe their control or vision has been co-opted by the studio (i.e., the film could have been recut, mutilated and altered against their wishes); aka Alan Smithee Jr., Allan Smithee, or Allen Smithee Examples: Death of a Gunfighter (1969), Let's Get Harry (1986), The Shrimp on the Barbie (1990), and the last film with the ironic alias: An Alan Smithee Film: Burn, Hollywood, Burn (1997).
allegory mostly a literary term, but taken in film terms to mean a suggestive resemblance or correspondence between a visible event or character in a film with other more significant or abstract levels of meaning outside of the film; an extended metaphor Examples: Animal Farm (1955), The Piano (1993), The Matrix (1999); also Biblical or Christ-related allegories.
allusion a direct or indirect reference - through an image or through dialogue - to the Bible, a classic, a person, a place, an external and/or real-life event, another film, or a well-known cultural idea
ambiance the feeling or mood of a particular scene or setting.
ambient light the natural light (usually soft) or surrounding light around a subject in a scene; also see background lighting.
ambiguity a situation, story-line, scene, or character, etc. in which there are apparent contradictions; an event (and its outcome) is deliberately left unclear, and there may exist more than one meaning or interpretation; can be either intentional or unintentional, to deliberately provoke imaginative thinking or confusion. Example: Robert Altman's 3 Women (1977)
anachronism an element or artifact in a film that belongs to another time or place; often anachronistic elements are called film flubs Example: Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002), the first feature shot using digital video cinematography, isn't really a film - an anachronistic term in this case; in the Civil War film, Glory (1989), one of the kids in the film wears what appears to be a Swatch watch; or in Lawrence of Arabia (1962), a U.S. Browning air-cooled machine gun is oddly featured before its time
anamorphic related to different optical imaging effects; refers to a method of intentionally distorting and creating a wide screen image with standard film, using a conversion process or a special lens on the camera and projector to produce different magnifications in the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the picture; an anamorphic image usually appears "squished" horizontally, while retaining its full vertical resolution; see also aspect ratio and the trade name CinemaScope. On the right are examples of anamorphic imaging effects from the film Blade (1998) (originally filmed with an aspect ratio of 2:35.1).
Anamorphic video signal
(it appears "squished" horizontally, or unnaturally tall) without alteration
Anamorphic video signal, now properly converted to appear properly on a standard TV with aspect ratio of 1.33:1 (or 4:3), as a letterboxed image. Note the wide bars on top and bottom.
Anamorphic video signal, now appearing properly on a widescreen TV with aspect ratio of 2.35:1 (or 16:9). Note the thin bars on top and bottom.
ancillary rights contractual agreement in which a percentage of the profits are received and derived from the sale of action figures, posters, CDs, books, T-shirts, etc.
Collectible ancillary products - custom-molded, hand-painted, polyresin bobblehead dolls of the characters from Star Wars (1977).
angle refers to the perspective from which a camera depicts its subject; see camera angle, and other specific shots (high, low, oblique, etc.)
animation
(and animator,
animated films) a form or process of filmmaking in which inanimate, static objects or individual drawings (hand-drawn or CGI) are filmed "frame by frame" or one frame at a time (opposed to being shot "live"), each one differing slightly from the previous frame, to create the illusion of motion in a sequence, as opposed to filming naturally-occurring action or live objects at a regular frame rate. Often used as a synonym for cartoons (or toons for short), although animation includes other media such as claymation, computer animation; see also CGI, claymation, stop-motion, time lapse.
A still from Disney's full-length animated feature film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937).
anime a distinctive style of animated film that has its roots in Japanese comic books, immediately recognizable and characterized by heavily stylized backgrounds, sci-fi and fantasy themes, highly exaggerated facial expressions with limited facial movement, simulation of motion through varying the background behind a static character or other foreground element, and frequently, big-headed characters with child-like, large eyes; originally called 'Japanimation'
Examples: Princess Mononoke (1997) and Spirited Away (2001).
antagonist the main character, person, group, society, nature, force, spirit world, bad guy, or villain of a film or script who is in adversarial conflict with the film's hero, lead character or protagonist; also sometimes termed the heavy.
Example: Jack Palance as black-garbed, mean gunslinger Jack Wilson in Shane (1953).
anthology film a multi-part or multi-segmented film with a collection or series of various tales or short stories sometimes linked together by some theme or by a 'wrap-around' tale; often the stories are directed by different directors or scripted by various screenwriters, and are in the horror film genre; also known as an episode film or omnibus film; this term may also refer to a full-length, compilation-documentary film of excerpted segments or clips from other films (i.e., That's Entertainment (1974)). Examples of true anthology films include: Creepshow (1982), a collection of five tales inspired by the EC horror comics of the 1950s, or Stephen King's Nightshift Collection (1986); also Dead of Night (1945), O. Henry's Full House (1952), Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983), Cat's Eye (1985), and Tales From the Darkside: The Movie (1990).
anthropomorphism the tendency in animated films to give creatures or objects human qualities, abilities, and characteristics.
Examples: from Watership Down (1978)
and Beauty and the Beast (1991)
anti-climax anything in a film, usually following the film's high point, zenith, apex, crescendo, or climax, in which there is an unsatisfying and disappointing let-down of emotion, or what is expected doesn't occur.
Example: the end of Fred Astaire's controversial 'blackface' tribute dance to Bill "Bojangles" Robinson in Swing Time (1936) - when he simply waves his hand dismissively and walks off stage.
anti-hero the principal protagonist of a film who lacks the attributes or characteristics of a typical hero archetype, but with whom the audience identifies. The character is often confused or conflicted with ambiguous morals, or character defects and eccentricities, and lacks courage, honesty, or grace. The anti-hero can be tough yet sympathetic, or display vulnerable and weak traits. Specifically, the anti-hero often functions outside the mainstream and challenges it. Anti-hero characters in films include: Paul Newman in Hombre (1967), Clint Eastwood's 'Man with No Name' in various spaghetti westerns, Harrison Ford's Han Solo in Star Wars (1977), and James Dean in Rebel Without a Cause (1955).
Cinematic Terms Definition and Explanation Example (if applicable)
aperture refers to the measurement of the opening in a camera lens that regulates the amount of light passing through and contacting the film
archetype a character, place, or thing, that is repeatedly presented in films with a particular style or characterization; an archetype usually applies to a specific genre or type classification
Examples: the whore with a heart of gold and the many other disparate characters on the trip to Lordsburg in Stagecoach (1939), the thug, the redneck sheriff in In the Heat of the Night (1967), the B-horror film, the small southern town, the western, the journey or quest (as in Apocalypse Now (1979)), etc.
arc shot a shot in which the subject(s) is photographed by an encircling or moving camera. Example: the dizzying camera shot during the Carrie (1976) prom scene.
art director refers to the individual responsible for the design, look, and feel of a film's set, including the number and type of props, furniture, windows, floors, ceilings dressings, and all other set materials; a member of the film's art department (responsible for set construction, interior design, and prop placement).
Example: the dark, goth moodiness and oppressive look of the set for Tim Burton's Batman (1989), created by art director Anton Furst.
art-house film films, often low budget, that are acknowledged as having artistic merit or aesthetic pretensions, and are shown in an art-house theatre; usually includes foreign-language films, independent films, non-mainstream (sometimes anti-Hollywood) films, shorts, documentaries, explicitly-erotic films, and other under-appreciated cinema of low mass appeal; began to appear in the 1950s and provided a distinct contrast to commercial films; other terms include: hi-brow or 'art' film Examples: La Cage Aux Folles (1978), The Sweet Hereafter (1997), Dancer in the Dark (2000), All About My Mother (1999).
aside occurs when a character in a film breaks the 'fourth wall' and directly addresses the audience with a comment Example: Henry Hill (Ray Liotta) speaking toward the camera at the conclusion of GoodFellas (1991)
aspect ratio in general, a term for how the image appears on the screen based on how it was shot; refers to the ratio of width (horizontal or top) to height (vertical or side) of a film frame, image or screen; the most common or standard aspect ratio in early films to the 1950s was called Academy Aperture, at a ratio of 1.33:1 (the same as 4:3 on a TV screen); normal 35mm films are shot at a ratio of 1.85:1; new widescreen formats and aspect ratios were introduced in the 1950s, from 1.65:1 and higher; CinemaScope (a trade name for a widescreen movie format used in the US from 1953 to 1967) and other anamorphic systems (such as Panavision) have a 2.35:1 AR, while 70mm formats have an AR of 2.2:1; Cinerama had a 2.77:1 aspect ratio; letterboxed videos for widescreen TV's are frequently in 16:9 (or 1.77:1) AR.
An example of an aspect ratio of 16:9 (or 1.77:1). Any number of films to the 1950s could be examples.
assembly the first stage of editing, in which all the shots are arranged in script order
asynchronous (sound) refers to audio-track sounds that are mismatched or out of conjunction or unison with the images in the visual frame (or screen); sometimes accidental, but sometimes intentional; aka non-synchronized
atmosphere refers to any concrete or nebulous quality or feeling that contributes a dimensional tone to a film's action. Examples: spookiness, howling wind, searing heat, blinding light, a rain downpour, etc.
audience refers to spectators, viewers, participants - those who serve as a measure of a film's success; although usually audiences are viewed in universal terms, they can also be segmented or categorized (e.g., 'art-film' audiences, 'chick film' audiences, etc.)
audio refers to the sound portion of a film. Audio clip: (73 k), from Young Frankenstein (1974)
audition the process whereby an actor-performer seeks a role by presenting to a director or casting director a prepared reading or by 'reading cold' from the film script; after the initial audition, a performer may be called back for additional readings
auteur
(or auteur theory) literally the French word for "author"; in film criticism, used in the terms auteurism or auteur theory, denoting a critical theory popular in France in the 1950s and 60s that was introduced by Francois Truffaut and the editors of the celebrated French film journal Cahiers du Cinéma and subsequently enlarged upon by American critic Andrew Sarris, among others; the theory ascribed overall responsibility for the creation of a film and its personal vision, identifiable style, thematic aspects and techniques to its film-maker or director; the theory posited that directors should be considered the 'true' authors of film (rather than the screenwriters) because they exercise a great deal of control over all facets of film making and impart a distinctive, personal style to their films; an auteur refers to a director with a recognizable style
Cover from early 1950s edition of the French film review journal Cahiers du Cinema.
available light the naturally-existing light in an off-set location; a film's realism is enhanced by using available light rather than having artificial light
avant-garde refers to an experimental, abstract, or highly independent, non-independent film that is often the forerunner of a new artistic genre or art form; avant-garde films self-consciously emphasize technique over substance; also loosely applies to a group of French and German filmmakers in the early 20th century and to some modern American experimental filmmakers (e.g., Andy Warhol), and their film movement that challenged conventional film-making; see also cinema verite, surrealism, and abstract form Example: American pop artist Andy Warhol produced/directed Sleep (1963), The Chelsea Girls (1967), Flesh (1968), Lonesome Cowboys (1968), Trash (1972), and Women in Revolt (1971).
B-Film
(or B-Movie,
B-Picture) an off-beat, low-budget, second-tier film, usually from an independent producer, shot quickly with little-known, second rate actors; often the second film (or the 'lower half') of a double-feature; B-films are often characterized by campy acting, cheesy special effects, and gratuitous violence and sexuality; contrast to an A-pictures (first-class, big-budget films with high-level production values and star-power); not to be confused with cult films, although some B-films attain cult status
Example: a typical low-budget, sci-fi B-movie, Teenagers From Outer Space (1959); also Edgar Ulmer's Detour (1946).
backdrop refers to a large photographic backing or painting for the background of a scene (e.g., a view seen outside a window, a landscape scene, mountains, etc.), usually painted on flats (composed of plywood or cloth); a large curved backdrop (often representing the sky) is known as a cyclorama; backdrops were more commonly used before the current trend toward on-location shooting and the use of bluescreens. Example: Although filmed on location in Mexico, most of the night scenes in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) were filmed on a studio set, with backdrops or flats.
background music refers to part of the score that accompanies a scene or action in a film, usually to establish a specific mood or enhance the emotion
backlighting this phenomenon occurs when the lighting for the shot is directed at the camera from behind the subject(s), causing the figures in the foreground to appear in semi-darkness or as silhouettes; with backlighting, the subject is separated from the background.
Example: Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) shower scene, with the killer backlit to obscure identity.
back lot an area, on studio property, in an open-air, outdoor space away from the studio stages, where real-life situations with backgrounds are filmed; contrasted to on-location shoots that are more expensive; various studios in the Los Angeles area offer back lot tours
Examples: big-city intersections, western streets are often filmed on back lots; above is the backlot of Universal Studios where some scenes were shot for Back to the Future (1985)
back projection a photographic technique whereby live action is filmed in front of a transparent screen onto which background action is projected. Back projection was often used to provide the special effect of motion in vehicles during dialogue scenes, but has become outmoded and replaced by bluescreen processing and traveling mattes; also known as rear projection or process photography (or shot); contrast to matte shot.
Examples: Any film with a moving vehicle and back-projected street scenes viewed through the back or side windows, such as in To Catch a Thief (1955).
back story refers to the events that directly happened prior to the beginning of the story, or lead to the story; composed of information that helps fill out the skeletal story of a screenplay or a character's background, often to help actors (or the audience) understand motivation. Example: the beginning of Casablanca (1942) provides back story; a reversal of backstory is found in Memento (2000)
balance within a film's visual frame, refers to the composition, aesthetic quality, or working together of the figures, light, sound, and movement Example: from Sunset Boulevard (1950), a beautifully balanced and composed frame
banned the blocking of a film's release (in a theatre showing or on video) by either the government or an official movie classification board, for political, religious, sexual, or social reasons; see also censorship.
Examples: director Stanley Kubrick voluntarily banned his own film A Clockwork Orange (1971) in Britain for almost 30 years because of copy-cat violence. And recently, the Academy award-winning film The Tin Drum (1979) was seized and declared obscene by state law in Oklahoma.
barn doors the black metal folding doors an all four sides of a light that can be bent back and forth on their hinges to control where the light is directed
barney a blanket placed over the film camera to reduce the noise of the moving mechanisms inside; see also blimp
based on a true story films that consist of a story line that has at least some basis in real historical events, and may actually contain only a few factual elements. These films, loosely based on various biographies, stories, or events, may/may not significantly alter the characters or situations for greater dramatic effect; inspired by a true story indicates the film is even looser with the factual basis of the events.
Examples: Braveheart (1995) (an account of the life of medieval Scottish patriot William Wallace), Raging Bull (1980) (based on the life of middleweight boxer Jake LaMotta), and Erin Brockovich (2000) (with Julia Roberts as the crusading single mother) shown here.
beat refers to an actor's term for how long to wait before doing an action; a beat is usually about one second
behind the scenes the off-camera events or circumstances during filmmaking. Example: The documentary Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse (1991) chronicled the sensational, behind-the scenes circumstances during the making of Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979).
best boy the term for any technical assistant, apprentice or aide (regardless of sex) for the gaffer or the (key) grip on a set, responsible for the routing and coiling of power cables necessary to run the lights for a shot; a gender-neutral term that came from whaling
beta 1/2 inch videotape that was originally called Betamax
billing the placement or display of names of actors, directors, and producers for a movie in publicity materials, opening (or closing) film credits, and on theatre marquees. A person's status is indicated by the size, relative position, and placement of their name. Generally, higher positions closer to the top with larger and more prominent letters designate higher importance and greater box-office draw, and precede people of lesser importance; the most prominent actor that appears first is said to have top billing, followed by second billing, and so forth. Example: Notice top billing given to Steve McQueen in Hell is for Heroes (1962).
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