Presentation 5:
By Remo Chipatiso.

Topic : Stage management at Reps Theatre:A critical analysis of duties of a stage manager at Reps Theatre.
PRESENTED ON 15 APRIL 2004

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This research sets to critically investigate the processes and approaches of stage management at Reps Theatre. Generally I will look at the duties of the Stage Manager in general as has been outlined from my studies/research on stage management and analyse it with the Stage Manager's duties at Reps Theatre. In doing so I need to see whether the trend is the same or it varies from one Stage Manager to the other. I also would like to find rationale in the way Stage Management is done at Reps Theatre.

1.1BRIEF HISTORY OF REPS THEATRE
Rep means Repertory Players. It has been in existence for over 70 years now. Initially a play reading group founded by four people, but in 1931 theatre performances started at the Dusthe Hall. Over the next 5 years, 16 plays were produced under difficult conditions, with minimal stage facilities, inadequate lighting, uncomfortable sitting and no money for improvements. In 1936 Reps was given the Prince Edward High School Beithall. The stage was larger and better equipped and patrons were able to hire cushions. During the 11 year occupancy, some 38 plays were presented, but in 1947 their tenancy was terminated as the Beit Hall was needed for school purposes. They then found accommodation in the Show Grounds and they started using it in 1947 after refurbishing a ramshackle Hall that was built as a cinema for the soldiers in the Second World War. During their 12 year occupancy 74 plays were produced mainly under packed houses.

There are two gentlemen who had a profound effect on the fortunes of Reps Theatre i.e. George Barnes and Adrian Stanley. In 1952 Reps celebrated their 21 birthday and plans were underway to build a new theatre. Barnes came up with the idea of launching a fund and in 1957 the fund showed a healthy amount of 25 000 pounds. Then the new theatre along second street extension was opened to the public in 1960 with a gala production of "Ramanov and Juliet". This official opening was also accompanied by musicals and there was also a champagne party in the foyer for the entire audience. This is where Reps is up to today. It mainly has two groups, the Reps adults and the Repteens. As for Stage Management at Reps it is as old as Reps itself, it has always been there and there is a very constant approach, which sees the Stage Manager mainly running the show as his main duty than being involved in pre-performance activities.

1.2 WHAT IS STAGE MANAGEMENT?
This is the supervision of backstage activities in the building up and production of a theatre piece, be it a play, dance, dance drama, orchestra and so forth. The member in charge of the backstage activities is the Stage Manager. He must know most about the stage and not a beginner; he must have experience in acting and also theatre productions.

This job of a Stage Manager is very important in a production after the Producer. In professional theatre, the Stage Manager's authority is acceptable and there is seldom any difficulty about it, but in amateur theatre it is different. He must always be consulted about scenery, props and effects on stage, as he is responsible for handling of these aspects and therefore entitled to a large say in what should be used. The producer can assist in upholding the Stage Manager's authority by taking him into confidence during rehearsals. If the Director is absent, rehearsals have to be taken by the Stage Manager.

2.0 DUTIES OF A STAGE MANAGER IN THEATRE IN GENERAL AND AT REPS THEATRE IN PARTICULAR.
The duties of a Stage Manger start from these phases in production:
-Pre-rehearsal period,
-Rehearsal period- first and final weeks,
-Managing the performance,
-Touring.

2.1 PRE-REHEARSAL PERIOD
At Reps Theatre, the Stage Manager starts his work a bit earlier than most of the crew. He starts his work two weeks before the first rehearsal; he is among the first people to come in contact with the manuscript. A Stage Manager is supposed to expand the script as well as to preserve it. He files some information about the script, which is: -
-Copy identification i.e. edition, date and number,
-To who issued and date.

A Stage Manager is supposed to keep records of any editing, which may be done to the script in terms of dialogue and scenes. At Reps Theatre, this is however, not the case as the production crew does not edit the script as they say that it is protected by the licensing laws which bind them. Actually at Reps scripts are used after buying their licenses, mainly plays from U.K, so these plays are performed using their original scripts. Therefore, one will realize that when it comes to the issue of the Stage Manager keeping records of edited scripts this does not apply at Reps.

The Stage Manager, at Reps Theatre studies the script to know it very well. He then breaks down the script i.e. he isolates, analsye and records elements that will help him and his Director stage the production in a way that would mostly be appreciated by the audience. These records are recorded as prompt scripts. These are however, recorded by the Production Secretary and not by the Stage Manager himself. I would had have preferred that the Stage Manager do it for himself because it will be much better that way and avoid unnecessary mistakes or filing of wrong information. At Reps Theatre there is no editing of the script, so one will realize that the crew and the cast have a difficult task because they cannot suit the script to the what they want, but it is rather them suiting to the demands of the scripts. This idea of editing the scripts is very important in a production because some of the written plays may contain some unnecessary dialogue which needs to be edited in order to make the play stagable. So one will realize that at Reps the idea of not editing the scripts may indeed compromises their production's quality.

The prompt scripts starts as a manuscript and goes under constant revision up till the final piece which is then presented to the audience. From the edition of the manuscript, the Stage Manager at Reps Theatre does the following things:

1 cites important situations,
-He must know the script very well and mark areas that are likely to give him problems or areas of interest where his artistic abilities are explored

2 Make preliminary plots,
a. Actor plot
-This contains the name of the actor and the number of scenes he/she will appear

b. Costume plot
-These are sketches of costume for a character for each and every scene he/she appears on stage.

c. Lighting plot
-Plots of the light that will be used to light each and every scene and specific areas on stage if there are such cases.

c. Props plot
-This contains sketches of what stage props are in each and every scene and how they would be arranged on stage.

Although there are designers of all these production elements, the Stage Manager has his own ideas and expectations in mind. The final design will be determined by the Designer, the Stage Manager and the Director. The Director and Stage Manager have the power to edit the designs since these designers report to the Stage Manager and the Director.

This aspect of the Stage Manager having his plots in mind seems to undermine the duties of the Designers as they will be forced to come up with designs which go along with those the Stage Manager has already. It will be difficult for the Stage Manager to accept a totally new design, since he may have his own plots.

3. Makes a master cue sheet.
-This is done to make sure that the performance is interlocked or keyed together. He must foresee problems and solve them and also how to accomplish interlocking of the production elements so that the performance occurs smoothly. On the Stage Manager's master cues sheet, there will be also be marked cues of actor entrances, what song the band is supposed at what time, when to light the stage and when there must be a blackout, and so forth. The Stage Manager uses direct and indirect cues as he supervises the production. Direct cues may be in form of dialogue for actor entrances, indirect cues uses equipment that is permanently fixed in the Theatre. At Reps Theatre, there is constant communication between the Stage Manager and the production crew using telecom. There is a guiding sheet at the backstage which is a direct cue for actor entrances onto the stage. In coming up with the cues, the Stage Manager usually binds a clean sheet opposite each script page where all his cues and script break down is found. This communication is very important and effective and makes a production have a smooth flow. With this kind of communication, if ever there is a problem, it is easily detected and taken care of.

A Stage Manager is involved in the planning of the performance pattern together with the production staff members. At Reps Theatre the Stage Manager meets his Producer and Director to determine the performance pattern. This performance pattern has the following information:
a. Date of first rehearsal,
b. Length of rehearsal,
c. Places to rehearse,
d. Date and place of scenery setup so as to know when to hire a props man to fix the stage props,
e. Date for technical rehearsal,
f. Dates when photos of actors in costume and on set are taken as these are used in advertising the play.

The involvement of the Stage Manager in coming up with this performance pattern is important since he is able to at least give his own ideas and contributions to it. This is important, as he needs frameworks on which he can work comfortably taking his time to show his artistic abilities.

The Stage Manager is usually advised by the Director on casting and therefore the Stage Manager must prepare:
a. A cast list
-This is a list of actors and their characteristics in the play as well as alternative actors with choices 1-3
b. Actor's file
-This contains:
1. Actor's name, address and phone number,
2. Actor's agent, if any,
3. Experience and special talents,
4. Part/character considered.

At Reps Theatre the Stage Manager is not the one who will have to type all this, it is the duty of the Production Secretary to make sure that all that is planned by the Director and the Stage Manager is typed and filed. In some Theatre companies, a Stage Manager is involved in the interviewing of the actors for the job i.e. auditions. During auditions three basic tests are done which are:

a. Physical qualification,
b. Applicant's technique,
c. Caliber of the applicant's innate ability.

Apart from these, however, there are some other obvious requirements such as sex, age, and physique. During auditions tryouts and reading are exercised. The Stage Manager is however not involved in the auditions; he simply comes in to manage a production. To involve him during auditions will be giving him too much load and I think this is the duty of the Director. However, since in some Theatre companies he is viewed as an Assistant Director, I see no problem in him being involved since in some Theatre companies there are no Assistant Directors.

2.2 DURING REHEARSALS
THE stage Manager is the center of a production although not in the sense of a spark, because most elements of the production pass through his hands. He links between ideas and actualities; he deals with all members of a production staff. A Stage Manager can be a specialist in some theatre area but when he is the Stage Manager he functions as a liaison between all production departments. At Reps Theatre the Stage Manager supervises the following together with his Assistant Stage Manager:

- Scenic designer and the operator of the fly,
- Costume designer,
-Lighting designer and operator,
- The cast,
- Band in the orchestra pit,
- Choreographer.

At Reps Theatre the Stage Manager supervises these departments from the rehearsal periods until the piece is performed and comes to an end. This is very important in stage management at Reps because he is indeed the member in charge and this will always facilitate the production of quality theatre pieces associated with Reps Theatre. As at Reps the main duty of the Stage Manager is to run the show so he being involved at an earlier stage is very important because when it comes to the show he will have no problems at all as he will be familiar with the theatre piece. At Reps Theatre the Assistant Stage Manager is sometimes chosen by the Stage Manager himself or the Director and the Producer. The Assistant Stage Manager's duties are the same as those of the Stage Manager and takes over his duties when he is not present.

In some theatre books he has been described as Assistant Director or Head Technician. In some cases he may occupy the two posts but in most productions he does not. At Reps Theatre this is not the case, the Stage Manager performs only his stage management duties nothing less nothing more. This is an advantage because he will concentrate on his work only as a Stage Manager and this will impact on the quality of the production, the more concentrated he is on his duties the higher quality and vice versa. The important thing about stage management at Reps Theatre is that whoever is in position must realize that he is required to be a liaison for all staff members with emphasis put on his work as an inspiriter.

He sees that the productions the actors will be rehearsing and giving some help to the Directors together with his assistant. He makes sure that all that was planned and prepared for the production during the days he was working on the script is implemented. He is mainly concerned with taking care of the technical rehearsals since he is the one in charge of the crew. He therefore makes sure that everything is in order and that the actors are safe and if any problems arises he must take care of them very quickly. In some Theatre companies, he is the one who prompts the actors during rehearsals. He also leads exercises before the rehearsals to make sure all the actors are fit and get into character he is supposed to mark the register and keep the logbook. In the absence of the Director, he is the one who conducts the rehearsals. He is also involved in the making of advertising posters and then the advertising of the play itself. At Reps Theatre the Stage Manager is not the one who conducts the exercises, as there are some professional people who lead the actors into exercises. The marking of the register is done by the Production Secretary and not the Stage Manager himself. However in the absence of the Director at Reps he indeed conducts the rehearsals as there is no Ass-Director at Reps Theatre. He is involved in the marketing of the play as he is the one who prepares posters for advertising of the play. However at Reps Theatre the Production Secretary is the one who prepares the Opening Night Programme. During the rehearsals the Stage Manager at Reps Theatre is almost like an onlooker he becomes much involved during the last days of rehearsals when technical rehearsals will be conducted as he is the one who is supposed to conduct them. As the one who is the Manager of the show I think it is really good for the Stage Manager to market the play as well as run its shows.

2.3 MANAGING THE PERFORMANCE
Under normal circumstances a Stage Manager is supposed to start his work two weeks earlier before the first rehearsal, at Reps Theatre although he is involved from the start his main duty is however to run the show. When the show opens to the public the director no longer part of the production crew and will be seated in the audience while the Stage Manager runs the show. In managing the performance, the Stage Manager's duties are divided into three phases which are:
a. Before the performance,
b. During the performance,
c. Ending of the performance.

a. Before the performance
The Stage Manager must arrive at the theatre well before the rest of the production crew and cast. At Reps Theatre the Stage Manager arrives at 4:30 when the show starts at 7:00pm, so this means that he is two and half hours earlier. This is important at Reps because he is the one who keeps the keys to the backstage so he must arrive earlier than the others. He makes sure an hour before the performance that the lights, sound, band and the fly gallery are in good shape and everything is in place for the safety of the actors. The crew also helps him in checking all this. At Reps they do sort of a technical rehearsal before the show everyday. This is very important and reduces chances of any problem and if there is any it will be solved before the show during this technical rehearsal.

Usually the Stage Manager is supposed to call actors who would have no arrived 30 minutes before the show. At Reps Theatre however it is not the duty of the Stage Manager but that of the Production Secretary. This is also an advantage to him since he be having a lot of things at hand so this comes as a relief and I don't see any problem with that. If any actor does not turn up then the Stage Manager has to take up the role of that actor. This is also good since he is involved from the beginning and would know the roles but this is not so easy.

At Reps Theatre it is the duty of the Stage Manager to see that no visitor is allowed at the backstage at any time. This is very important as it will reduce accidents as only people who are familiar with the backstage are allowed. If someone does not know well the geography of the backstage he/she can makes mistakes which may lead to disasters so it is important that only crew members be found at the backstage. Also no actor is allowed on stage before the opening curtain, they will all be in their changing rooms at the backstage. This is important also because they would not want the actors to disturb the props man who will be preparing the stage. He also makes sure that no actor leaves the backstage without his knowledge and permission. This is also important because an actor must be on the right place on the right time in case the Stage Manager wants to see him/her.

b. During the performance.
During the running of the show a Stage Manager is supposed to record curtain time. He is also supposed to address the audience during at breaks. At Reps however he does not record it since all productions have a fixed normal time. During the break he does not address the audience as the timetable of the show will be outline on the night show programme. He can only address the audience whenever there is problem for example when there was a power cut during the shows of "Razzle Dazzle", the Stage Manager had to address the audience keeping them well informed. It is however unfortunate that on this occasion, the show had to be cancelled. He also prompts the actors from the prompt room from between the acts or scenes. This is important because when an actor is stuck he or she can find a way out. He supervises change of scenery at the fly gallery.

c. Ending of the performance
a Stage Manager is supposed to remind actors about the next programme and performance. In some Theatre companies, the Stage Manager addresses the audience but at Reps Theatre it is not the case. After the evening show the Stage Manager at Reps is the last person to leave the theatre and then locks the backstage. Props are not removed from the stage they will be only be removed from the stage when the night shows come to an end. This is good because the stage has to be kept sacred until the show comes to an end and no manipulations will be done on the set.

4.0 TOURING
Some Theatre companies have tours of their plays across the country and even across the boarders. When tours are carried out the Stage Manager is the one who travel with the cast and crew. He is the one who inspect the theatre venues as soon as they arrive where they are to perform. He also has to check hotel reservations. He also organizes transport to the hotel and to the venue of performance. In this case the Stage Manager becomes more like a Production Manager than a Stage Manager. At Reps there is however no tours which are done so his duties come to an end when the show comes to an end.

5.0 CONCLUSION
From this analysis one can realize that Stage Management at Reps Theatre is done at a professional level. Of course there are one or two areas which may differ from our academic of stage management but at Reps Theatre this is justified and I believe it really works for them as I witnessed. There are some weaknesses to the way stage management is done at Reps but all in all to a greater extent it is a strength to them as this helps them in coming up with excellent productions. The important thing about stage management at Reps is that whoever is the Stage Manager at any time does the duties in the same manner as others before him. I came to conclude that there is the same trend in approaching stage management at Reps Theatre.

Topic: A critical appraisal of the elements of design and principles of composition in ANIMAL FARM. (Video recording; 1998 Bulawayo Girls College)

Introduction
The topic calls one to estimate the aesthetic merits of the artistic work ANIMAL FARM performed by the Bulawayo Girls College in 1998. One cannot therefore find this paper useful unless and until they watch the video recording of the play. However, there is need to give a general explanation on what elements of design and principles of composition are.

Elements of design are the factors that combine to make up form of a design in a piece of art, while form is the use of these elements of design in a composition. Elements of design are in other words the raw materials needed in order to come up with any beautiful art form. They are ready to brought together in some order for a purpose. Color, texture, mass, line, and position are all elements of design which can be used together to serve a multiple function. Color texture and line can easily be combined, for instance a red, soft and fine textured tight fitting costume can give the impression of a romantic atmosphere.

Principles of composition are the general rules (so to speak) on which designing is based. Composition basically refers to the arrangement and coordination of certain aspects; in this case, the elements of design into a meaningful form; unified form. It brings a unity of purpose or idea to the finished stage setting and organizes the physical elements of scenery in space. Principles of composition include harmony, contrast, variation, unity, balance, rhythm and proportion. Design by means of definition is an artistic intention embodied in a composition or the arrangement of color, line or light.

STYLE
ANIMAL FARM is a play acted based on a novel George Orwell. The story in the novel has a socialist realist theme, which basically is embedded in the idea that animals at a farm called Manor Farm, owned by Mr. Jones sought to change the status quo. The author of the novel also aimed at communicating that life is harsh, it is not fair and it has never ending cycles and that history tends to repeat itself. This is evident in that even when animals at Manner Farm had chased away Mr. Jones for being a ruthless tyrant, tyranny did not come to an end at the ANIMAL FARM where animals were now in authority, but still had the human emotions clothed within them.

The play ANIMAL FARM, as was performed by the students from Bulawayo Girls College was more of a realist than anything else. As it was acted, the students assumed the roles of animals but did not necessarily create the illusion of real animals, and neither was there any particular mask used to dress up the play. Trying to be more particular about costume would perhaps have led the designers into creating huge masks for each character and indeed the design concept would have been absurd. Apart from being realistic, the play's design concept also bears a lot of symbolism evident in the meanings portrayed by certain scenic elements employed in the design.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
In ANIMAL FARM, like in any other artistic work, need was there to make a careful consideration of the elements of design and principles of composition in order to come up with a good design form. By merely watching the video recording, even an untrained eye can realize that efforts were made by some designers so as to come up with such a wonderful production design. Color, texture, mass, shape and line are the elements of design that were employed in the design and the governing principles that were used are balance, harmony, proportion and variation.

A variety of bright, colorful costumes have been used. Costume was carefully planned on so as to avoid dressing up the actors. Generally, the costume was very distinct for each character and probably, this was the intended effect to use costume in characterization. Colour affects perception; mood or psychology and certain colours are associated with certain events. Although semiotics in theatre is very problematic to apply, one cannot be criticized for estimating, for instance, that striking colours are used for the principal actors or dominant characters. All the pigs were costumed in pink outfits save for Old Major who wore a black outfit with white patches. The reason why pigs were in pink costume could have been that they are so vocal and so influential in the play. Old Major's unique costume could have been used to show how venerable he was and to differentiate him from the rest even in terms of age.

Apart from being varied, the costume used in ANIMAL FARM was very proportional in such a way that no costume would override the other in terms of costume colour. Besides being proportional, the colours of all the costume were relevant to the design concept and to the play's thematic structure. Horses wore beige outfits, the donkeys' costume was brown, the dogs were in black and the sheep were in white. All the colours were communicating an aspect of each individual character's personality, for instance, the donkeys and the horses are known for hard working and that is why they wore dull coloured costumes. The sheep are associated with innocence and purity and that could be the reason why they were costumed in white.

Apart from aiding characterization, colour in costume generates a sensual effect. In as much as semiotics in theatre is very much problematic to apply, one can never dispute that colour creates aesthetic beauty, and give a visual appeal or adds spectacle to the play. The best match comes out of a contrast and that could have been the designers' intention when they chose a black and white costume for Old Major.

Line in costume defines form and shape. Costume can either be loose or tight fitting depending on the designer's intention. Line is usually related to mass, size or weight and if applied in costume designing, a costume can be used to exaggerate a figure. Costume used for the characters in the play ANIMAL FARM was not in any way exaggerated; not too loose, and also not too tight for comfort. The costume was loose enough to accommodate free movement for the actors.

In terms of texture, one cannot be sure to give an elaborate account unless they had practically seen the costume or else the costume's visual appearance can be used to estimate its texture. The general outlook of the costume used in the play ANIMAL FARM seems to suggest that all the costume was rough in texture. ANIMAL FARM expresses the tyranny of man, and emphasizes that life is harsh and it has never ending cycles of the same events. The unfriendly environment the play communicates is all captured in the coarseness of the costume and also the set and background design.

Just as with the costume, a conscious consideration of the elements of design and principles of composition must have been made in the set designing too. Any form of criticism cannot take away the fact that whether consciously or unconsciously; elements of design were applied in the set design. Texture, colour, shape and position are the visible elements visible on the set. The stage used for the play is undoubtedly a proscenium stage but efforts were made to create a conducive set for the production. The background on the set was made up of wooden flats, brown in colour, and visibly rough and hard in texture. There was also a bunch dry grey straw lying idle on the centre stage right and more to it, dirty torn brown sacks hung on the wall to the upper stage left. All this must have been done with the intention to portray the locale, as at the farm, and the rough textures could be interpreted as depicting the oppressive internal state of affairs at the farm.

There is no or very little doubt that the set and scenic designer also considered shape in his or her design. This is evident through the presence of a round table in one scene where Snowball and Peacock sat at table for dinner with farmers from neighbouring farms. The significance of this round table must have been a deliberate attempt to show the unity of purpose amongst the animals in authority "Animal farm" an men from their neighbouring farms.

Naturally, circles are associated with repetitive or never ending institutions of human nature. Symbolically, the circular shape created by the table was meant to prove that life is harsh and that history tends to repeat itself. In as much as the animals at Manor Farm had chased away the tyrant Mr. Jones because of his brutality, tyranny continued at the then "Animal Farm" where the animals in authority tasted the sweetness of power and became manipulative to their fellows. The circular shape of the table gives the implication of unity among men and animals and this expresses the human emotions clothed in the bodies of Snowball and Peacock.

The position of the table at the down stage right also must been a result of a careful study of the impression it would create had it been placed there as compared to any other position on the stage. Aided by the lighting, the impression of a separate room detached from the rest of the set was created by the table's position and it also created the illusion of a change in locale. Also noticeable as a conscious design was the use of wooden table and hard straight backed chairs. By virtue of being hard, firm, and rough in texture, the wooden chairs could have been used in the set only to emphasise the harsh conditions of life at the farm embedded in the thematic frame of the play.

The fag, which was used as a stage property, was also very presentational and symbolic too. The colours used on it were symbolic; green representing the green fields of England and the grey hoof and horn drawing on it representing the republic of the enemy. The position of the flag on the wall at a central point was also a way of creating balance on the set. Also significant was the aesthetic beauty of the flag with its sharp contrast between the green and grey colours on it.

Nothing much was done in terms of creative lighting but lights served the basic function of the illumination of actors and the stage. Lighting also signified the beginning of the play. The lights used gave enough or adequate light to make the actors and the stage visible. Together with some soft background music, lights served as a curtain to signify the beginning of the play, end of scenes and the end of the play. The intensity of the light used was generally constant save for a few instances like in the scene where Old Major dies; low intensity lights were used possibly to heighten the matter of deaths at the farm. Lights can be used creatively to help a mood, achieve a certain atmosphere or to create a certain emotion within the actors and or the audience.

EVALUATION
No criticism can take away the fact that the designers for the play ANIMAL FARM did a very good job in as far as applying the elements of design and the principles of composition is concerned. An analysis of the play will show that in every little aspect of the design, particular attention to detail was paid.

The costume used was very relevant and significant. It was not mere dressing up of actors but it was distinct for each role. Also considering the style and genre of the play, one can safely say the play was really realistic in nature and also the symbolic aspects employed in the design were successful.

The set in itself is evidence enough that the designers did their part. There were not a lot of properties employed in the set but still the few that were there, were enough to create the desired appearance. Lighting was also excellent even if it was not very creative and the illusion created by the background sounds was very effective too. One could easily identify with the theme of the play through listening carefully to the sounds attached to the background of the play.

CONCLUSION
Credit has to be given to the designers who did the work in the production of the play ANIMAL FARM. It appears to me as if the designers were capable of coming up with more appealing production designs but there should have been limitations in terms of resources.

Topic : Costume and characterisation in the soap Studio 263: A critical analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to make a critical analysis of the approaches to characterization and how the process of characterizations is affected by costume in the soap Studio 263 for purposes of clarity, costume in this instance is going to include hair, make up, the clothes and also accessories which include earrings and rings.

There need to give a brief outline of the history of the soap Studio 263. From my interview with Mr. Aaron Chiundura Moyo, I gathered that, Public Service International (PSI) formulated an idea for an AIDS awareness campaign, and came up with an idea of a drawn as a way of fighting the epidemic which is a current major threat on Zimbabwe population. The PSI together with ZBC considered this idea and the board agreed to assign their chief writer at ZBC, who is Mr. A C Moyo himself.

As a writer, majoring in a Shona language, Mr. Moyo using the concept from PSI started to write a play in Shona entitled MuHarare Hamurarwe up to about 30 episodes. He together with the ZBC board reported back to PSI and they analyzed the play. On the other side Mr. Moyo together with the ZBC board had organized for the actors to act out the play, some which were reputable actors on the national screen. PSI then rejected both the Shona dialogue in the play and the well known actors. Their argument was that, as a campaign programme the play had to make an impression on the viewers in the whole country and so they decided to turn the dialogue into English and also appointed the director of Neria to come and direct, and also be an executive producer, Mr. Godwin Mawuru. This is when the play was re-entitled Studio 263, and was also agreed that the play should be returned into daily soap to appear on the national screen.

From the brief history, their aim was to create an AIDS awareness drama, but with time, PSI decided it should be turned a soap, meaning that it had to be of long lasting and depicting the exactness if life, not a situation whereby a actor catches the aids disease and then dying on the 3rd or 5th episode, this is not lifelike. So the play being turned into a soap meant that there are to be mosaic plots ,whereby its not everyday that the theme is stressing on HIV/AIDS, but other themes just as in real life like religious in peoples daily lives, for example Pastor G's presence in the soap represents Christianity. Shanga, the traditional healer represents traditionalism.

Explaining a character and characterization
A character is a fictitious person who has as been created by the playwright depicted in the play script, whom the audience has to see live in an actor on the set or stage. An actor should be constantly occupied in the study of his/her character and characteristics, for example the way character speaks, laughs, walks and so forth and when an actor can identify himself completely with a character, then they are almost perfect success.

In Studio 263, to help their actors achieve this success, they have devised a questionnaire, which each actor fills in describing his/her character, their background, social status, education, likes and dislike, hobbies, favourate dishes and so forth.

That process assigning an actor to appropriately show the character on the set characterization. This process is governed b y 3 aspects:
Psychological. Physiological and sociological. Physiological deals with the outside appearance age of an actor considering the role they are required to play, for example Mr. Muwengwa is a sugar daddy in the soap, and in our societies, sugar daddies are characterized by big chubby men with pot bellies and so the physique of Mr. Muwengwa befits for him to take the role sugar daddy, the role which are cannot expect Jari to be playing, because of his physical appearance. The psychological aspects deals with the emotional levels of the actor for example Vimbai Huni is supposed to be an emotional young woman who cries easily, some actors cannot play that part better an others because of their emotional appeal and sometimes there is type casting for such roles in amateur hrs since some people are hard to shed tears or rather cannot cry readily.

The sociological aspect deals with the values and beliefs of the actor, for example some actress background and religion may not allow them to put on slacks and they might not feel very comfortable acting in such clothes and so the producer has to appoint someone else that role. When all these three aspects have been put into consideration in the process of characterization hence we have a detailed personally profile and characters can then be real and authentic to life. In building their character the director and producer only take out those qualities they want for the requirement of the character in the script and leave out those that do not help in the building of the character. It is also very important for the actors to know and understand the character they are playing so as to give appropriate and natural feelings in a lifelike manner.

Approaches to costume
In Studio 263, most clothes worn on set by the actors are designed and tailored by their costume designer Chamaine who also appear on set as Mrs. Huni. She has one tailor to help her and there is a large worn they call the wardrobe where the designer and tailor do their work. however, for special occasions in the soap, for example the Miss Harare and Zimbabwe pageants. Some fashion shops advertise their clothes through the soap, shops like House of Kumali and Edgars Group. Lulu and Mercy are the make up and hair artists who are responsible for the actors hair and make up on set they do this with script requirements, for example trimming of eye lashes, dyes, sets, weaves, wigs and dreadlocks.

In Studio 263 they use costume to depict the time of the day. For example, one actor who appears as Jacob Huni explained how he is responsible for his appearance after designers have done their work. if he is to appear for a latter in the day episode to suggest afternoon or late afternoon, then he gets dressed in the coming so that by the time they are shooting him, his hair is muffled up, sleeves rolled up to show a man whose been working all day. And one can agree with this point and it gives the soap a true-life picture. However, when I was putting a critical eye, in the appoint that costume shows time of day, I had problems in finding out that the older women in the soap, Mrs. Jari and Mrs. Huni are always very clean. There's one episode when Mrs. Huni was preparing breakfast for her for her family, she was really smart looking, all dressed up in face make up, mascara and lipstick, when its supposed to be early morning and also considering the fact that she doesn't go to work. With Mrs. Jari, the problem is that, she's always smart looking, not that I want her to be scruffy, but that, in real life, when a mother is relaxing at home and knitting, she is very unusual to see her in an attire that makes you think she's just about to enter into the interview worn for a very important appointment.

Make up is used to depict age in the soap, for example the women through their make up and hair can be classified into 2 groups: the married ones, i.e. Mrs. Jari and Mrs. Huni and Mrs. Muwengwa, their make up is not sharp and loud as those of the younger women: Vimbai, Joyce, Bev and Eve, and I think is realistic in life. There are also aging characters in script, for example some girls are going to be mothers soon and have families of their own and so make up will be used to show all that. In her real life, Mrs. Huni is young but on set she befits to be Joyce' mother and thus shows good make up use in the soap. Make up removes natural oils and shininess of the skin and this gives a good camera picture on the screen and so one will find that all actors need to be made up before shooting.

Costume and make up distinguishes social and economic class in the soap. The way Joyce is dressed and her hair made shows a character from the elite. From the script or character plot, Vimbai is supposed to be in the middle class which is a different class from Joyce's but sometimes under a critical eye, one can find that class distinction is not very visible because there is not much difference between how those two actors dress up. However, Tom Mbambo elegant suits really show his status in society. He is very rich and in the soap he represent the rich lawbreakers who use money to buy good image, rich and above the law. Jacob's hairstyle shows us, despite age that he has a shady character, a crook or thug which is a good manipulation of hairstyles to depict character. Welly's hairstyle an aspiring artist and this is real to present day situation whereby many artists are dread locked.

Costume and make up helps to show social values and being. On the one hand, Joyce's character can be conducted as one who cares too much for hot fashions and latest arrivals, that a one who enjoys her life, who loves fun, on the other hand Tendai Jari is successfully depicted as a down to earth person, she is shown as one who represents the message, "there is life after HIV" and she doesn't value much the hot and latest fashions like the other women of her age group.

On social values, we also see that the married women's way of dressing is different from the younger women. They wear descent clothes, for example no tight fitting slacks for them. This shows the characters as being true to life in the soap.

Costume and make up help the actors to maintain their character personality. For example, when they are on set Tendai Jari as compared to the likes of Joyce Huni, she might have reason to feel inferior due to the way they are both dressed with Joyce looking rich and elegant and Tendai cheap. This helps them to maintain their character personality profiles in their lives.

Also with the kept women. Eve and Bev, they put heavy make up for them to be very attractive to their sugar daddies. The make up helps them maintain the personality of a kept women or women who use their bodies to earn a living. However another problem is that there is not really any marked distinction between this type of women and other young women, for example Eve's as compared to Joyce' make up, there is a danger of making the same conclusion about both of them at the of the day.

Sometimes the actors are not true to life, for example as children, Angie and Dylan are supposed to be dirtying the house turning things upside down and dirtying the floors and carpets so that we find their mothers fretting about their carpets and sofas. Another observation is that, normally inmates are supposed to be bold headed but when James went to prison he maintained his dreadlocks after given sentence of 36 months in prison he was supposed to get bold headed.

By analysis their approach to costume, one can also find that they manipulate costume to show an occasion, for example when Jacob Huni threw a party at some expensive bar, the males on the occasion has bow-ties on to show an occasion more food was available. Eve put on a long blue skirt and a doek despite her dress code of tight slacks and mini skirts, when she went to see the traditional healer Shanga to get some love portion to put for Muwengwa. However, it is not quite impressing to discover that of Jari's funeral the women were dressed to kill, of course most of them had long waist cloths (Zambias) but even those from the rural areas were looking impressively dressed whereas in our real lives, when a beloved one passes away, people rarely think of putting on impressive clothing.

Jabu has turned to a born again Christian but still find him wearing the same funky woolen hats, jeans and still maintains his hair. Not many viewers will be quick to observe. This change in behaviour if he sticks to his old dress code. I think as a church brother, like in our lives, he will normally switch on to formal wear.

CONCLUSION
Nevertheless when all has been said about the costume the grand question is that how for can the aim of the soap be felt with the audience, how far is their characterization successful using costume in the soap. I would say to a greater extent because after all the mistake, we can still see the theme of Aids awareness, we can still identify that Muwengwa's a sugar daddy, he has a descent wife, that Tom is a rich crook, that Chenai Jari and Mrs. Huni are mothers of around 20 year old daughters despite their real ages, that Bev and Eve are kept women who thrive on attracting men and that Joyce comes from an elite family. It is from this analysis that one can safely say that it is to quite a great an extent that costume aids in the process of characterization, in that it helps the actors to find and identify with the characters that they are playing.

Topic : Costume in street theatre:Styles and approaches in costume design Magariro as a case study
1.0 Introduction
This paper seeks to outline and critically examine styles and approaches used by Magariro Street theatre group in costume design. Before getting into detail, I would like to define some of the words in the topic: which include; street theatre, costume, approach and style.

1.1 Definitions
"Street theatre" is an imitation of an action by a performer in the street before a watching audience in that street, (Chiwanza 2003:7) This group called Magariro does its performances in the streets mostly where Speke avenue and First street meet in Harare. Audience will be watching in a circle surrounding the performers.

"Costume", the group defined costume as an "attire" and when I asked for further elaboration, they said they are clothes that are used when acting on stage. So costume is any clothing worn by actors on stage and this includes accessories such as hats, "bandanas", make up, hair styles, artificial beard, handkerchiefs, shoes, masks, beads and jewellery.

-"Approach" is the method used to acquire the needed costume.

-"Style" refers to the compositional characteristics that distinguish the appearance of one type of thing from another, (Greenwald 1986:72). In other words, it is the approach which is employed to come up with distinctive features and functions of costume, in this case we can talk of naturalism, theatricalism, stylization, symbolism, realism e.t.c.

2.0 Approaches
Magariro Street Theatre group uses three approaches namely;
(i) The group has got a costume designer whose main duty is to make sure that the actors have the needed costume on the stage and also takes control of the storeroom.
(ii) They listen to the demands of the audiences when deciding.
what to wear on stage
(iii) Actors decide for themselves what to wear mainly on
accessories such as earrings, necklaces and even some clothes
depending on the scene they will be performing

2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of each approach
The costume designer at Magaririo makes sure that there are always needed costumes in the storeroom. The storeroom has an advantage that costumes are readily available all the time. The designer will not have problems of acquiring costumes also no time and money is spent on hiring the costumes. They also use the storeroom to store some of the clothes, which are donated to them by different organisations. These organisations have printed T-shirts which they then donate and these T-shirts convey some message to the public. When they performed an episode, which dealt with promiscuity and the deadly HIV/AIDS disease, they took T-shirts with HIV/AIDS messages and gave them to some of the actors. They take advantage of the messages written which complements dialogue in enforcing the theme. Even, without the dialogue, the actors could depict what was really taking place and the audience understood the dangers of being promiscuous by merely seeing the message on the t-shirt.

The above approach has some loopholes. What I noticed when I was carrying out some interviews with the group members is that, having a wardrobe for costume can lead to stock costumes. Stock costume is just pulling costume from the wardrobe, its not particularized because it will have not meant for that dramatic function. The designer ought to think, on how he/she wishes the actors to be dressed, considering both color and material and thinking of production as a whole (Stewart H.D 1972:117). This will hardly be achieved especially where the costume is just withdrawn from the wardrobe.

The costume designer is also responsible for make-ups. From what I noticed, make-up can simply be defined as artificial human features that are added to the actor like bead, spots on the face, baldness, blood stains e.t.c. The designer explained that, the idea of make-up mostly comes into use when the script demands a character with features which differs from the actor's original physique which will make the actor suit those of the characters. For example, when they performed an episode which dealt with AIDS, they had some black spots on the faces of the actors in order to appeal as if they are all positive. According to the script the five actors in this episode got the disease due to their infidelity in marriage. Make-up has got the advantage that it puts action and actors very close to real life, since acting is the imitation of reality. Make-up also allows this group to use its few human resources effectively, instead of the group going out to look for someone who has a baldhead and a bulging stomach, the groups simply took one of the actors and did the make up like what they did to "Awilo" when he acted as an aged rich company director.

Secondly, the group also answers to the demands of the audience when deciding what to wear on stage. For example, Freddy Manjalima popularly known as "Kapfupi" is always costumed in the same clothes, which is a torn jacket, big funny leather hat, pair of trousers which is cut short and bathing slippers. This type of costume according to the designer is said to have started in the episode, which "Kapfupi" was given a food portion, which had charms, by his wife. At first they did it to express how dangerous it is to give a husband charms, it can reduce someone to a mere mentally disturbed person. In this case Kapfupi's costume was deliberately designed to strengthen the fact that he became mentally disturbed after being given a food portion with charms. Wellington Musa explained that when Kapfupi used this costume, the audience found it comic and from this day onwards thus they demanded to see him in this same costume. For the sake of the audience, they thus agreed and it has since impressed a number of people.

The above approach has its own weaknesses; it leads to dressing up of the actors because it lacks attention to detail. It seems to distort the whole meaning of a play, as the plays vary from setting to setting, and they have various plots. Under normal circumstances costume will be expected to change since acting always should be as close as possible to life because others define it as an imitation of life. In some of the scenes, it seems as if Kapfupi will just be dressed up, his costume may not be suitable for particular scenes, like when he is going to look for a job, obviously in real life people expect someone to change his dirty clothes and wear something suitable for that occasion. In life rarely do we find fathers dressed the way he will be dressed. I feel the comic part sometimes interferes with other important issues. The comic in the costume might end up distorting the whole episode because; whatever Kapfupi does on the stage may be taken lightly when in fact the scene is not intended to be comic. For instance, in the current episode, Kapfupi is taking the role of a different character, this time a father who is caring and who knows how difficult life is and can teach his two nephews about life. I think for this role to be well undertaken Kapfupi might need to be well dressed like a father.

The last approach is one in which actors decide for themselves on what to wear on stage especially on accessories such as hats, jewellery and some clothes depending on the scene they will be performing. One reason they cited to this approach is that, they do not have financial resources to buy a lot of resources. One researcher had this to say, "a common trend in the group's work is that usually the actors provide their own outfits and choose clothes from their own closets. Hence their performances are more like dressed performances rather than costumed ones, (Chiwanza 2003:38)".

Though the above method can be a result of financial constraints, it has some weaknesses. Members of the group confessed that some of these small things (accessories) are only up to the actors to decide what to bring on the stage. This leads to generalisation of costume, everything that is brought on stage should bear a meaning. When designing costume there is need to be conscious even with some of the things designers took to be small. When I talked to the actors before the performance, they were wearing the same clothes which they used to perform on stage, and then I concluded that these actors provided themselves with costume, even the following day when I met "Awilo" he was dressed in the same clothes that he had used a day before on stage.

Dressing of actors leads to generalization of costume, when costume is supposed to convey a message it will not. For example in the episode where the two twins were said to be poor and living under harsh conditions in the custody of their stepmother, we saw them wearing nice watches, necklaces and other accessories; their clothes and shoes contradicting what is said about them. It might be stereotypical to associate poverty with torn clothes but in real life this is what we meet and usually the audience would want to see a situation where costume assist in communicating and exploring dramatic action and characters.

3.0 Styles
From my first definition styles are the compositional characteristics which are employed to come up with distinctive features and functions of costume, in this case we can talk of naturalism, theatricalism, stylization, symbolism realism e.t.c. What I noticed from this group is that there is not deliberate consciousness to these styles so I had to find out where they were employed unconsciously, this is what I am going to highlight under styles. From their approaches it seems that there is no one or main style, which is followed in their design.

I will start by theatricalism, which I think is not prominent in this group. By way of definition, theatricalism is a 20th century movement that emphasized picturesque expression with artistic and aesthetic value. It ignores realistic aspects of the scene and concentrates on what evokes a theatrical mood, (Tyler Junior college writers, 2002). From the definition it means the manipulation of costume to meet the demands of the audience mainly for entertainment reasons. Kapfupi's dress code is theatrical on its own and it has a comic value.

Still under theatricalism, in one of the scenes where aPhiri wanted to show his colleagues that he has got a lot of cash that he could buy anything, he likes at any time. He had a nice box shoe, suddenly he just said the place where they were sitting was becoming too hot and he started to remove his shoes. He went on to remove one pair of new stocks and he repeated that up to six new pairs. The audience laughed at each and every moment when he was putting off those stocks. In real life, seldom do we find people who go around with a full wardrobe only to show off, so this was theatrically done to create a light, humorous and entertaining atmosphere.

Apart from that, suggestive realism is also used, in this style I can also see some elements of consciousness in its implementation. Suggestive realism, means providing a few details for the audience who use their imagination to complete the picture (Mshengu A.K 1997:159) In this case I shall give the example of "Awilo" where he acted as a bald headed man, with his hair painted white, to appear as an aged man who is turning grey. The audience was enticed to imagine an aged man, failure to imagine, one would see a young man who is only designed that way. Reality is not there but it is just suggested. It is a great disadvantage to the viewers who fall short of their imagination and creativity. The actor tried by every means to appear, psychologically, physiologically and sociologically to look like the character but in this scenario those who had problems in imagining things would not be moved by this, rather they would just take it as something done for theatrical reasons.

Furthermore naturalism was also used. This is a philosophy of determinism derived from Darwin and Spencer, contending that humans are products of their heredity and their environment, (M.L Greenwald: 841). Naturalism as a theatrical style places a premium on actualistic details in scenery costume and it demands on acting style that is thoroughly life like (lbid: 841). From the two definitions it means that costume is used to meet a naturalistic effect in a performance. In Magariro theater group, there are many instances when it is used to achieve this effect. One good example is how those who are taking the roles of mothers are costumed. They are always costumed in long dresses a wrap-over (Zambia) and a head gear (dhuku). In life we usually see this in many families mostly those, which are African culture oriented. This type of costume marked the difference between a married woman and the unmarried.

Symbolism is also found among the styles - Symbolic costume stands for something. We are not asked to complete it simply to understand what it represents (R.K Mshengu p160). In costumes mostly colors are used. A good example is when black was used in one of the scenes when the father in law came to collect his daughter. He was costumed in black, black symbolizes death or sorrow. This only appeals much after watching the action and listening to the dialogue. In this particular scene, there was a heated argument, which nearly resulted in a fight. In other scenes the step mother who is costumed in a red Zambia and top allegedly put poison in the food which she wanted to give to the orphans who stays with her. She wanted to get rid of them accusing them to be wasteful.

Symbolism usually works efficiently at a national or community scale because people attach different meanings to colours, for example, red can represent romantic atmosphere or danger. In the above-mentioned scene red symbolizes danger that was to befall on the twin brothers. To a person who knows what red represents, it created suspense, moreover, linked to the dialogue and the mood of the whole scene, one would definitely become curious to know what was going to happen.

4.0 Effects of Costume
These approaches and styles necessarily produce varied effects on the function of costume. Costumes can portray a character's status for example when an actor wants to take the role of a person of substance and integrity one can be costumed in "decent" costume. In one of the scenes the boss was costumed in plain trousers, sandals and a checked green shirt, well tucked in whilst his subjects were wearing clothes that were rough in texture. Thus here the costume functioned to explore and communicate socio-economic status of the characters.

Costume can portray a character, for example, one who is mentally retarded thus "Kapfupi" is always costumed in dirty torn clothes. The costume portrays a character who is psychologically disturbed. The costume enhances the character portrayed; it is a visual communication of the psychological and mental state of the character.

In Magariro Street Theatre group it seems,their main emphasis is on the psychological effects that costume can motivate. One of the actors Wellington Musa a.k.a "Awilo" said that when you enter the stage and the audience start to cheer up because of the costume you will be given a good ground to express yourself. It gives you the zeal and you get into character. He went on to say when he was acting as an aged man with a bald head, he was motivated by the audience who cheered saying "Mudhara-Mudhara". He said it helped him to get into character since the audience had already approved him to be one before he said anything. (Interview: February 2004).

Costume can also be used as a disguise to the appearance of an actor. The same example of "Awilo" who was bald headed to portray an aged man is relevant here. In real life he is a young man in his twenties. Costume changed his physiological status, thus, it complemented in having the three dimensions of character which include; physiology, sociology and psychology. Generally if one wants to act out a character he/she should have the three dimensions of a character. In this particular case costume assisted in revealing the physiology of the character which is not necessarily the same as that of the actor.

Apart from costumes, I found out that dialogue, body and voice plays a prominent role in the performances. This goes in the same line with the assertion that drama is a product of the actor who utilizes the provided space and time for the audience to have a performance.

This can be likened to Grotowski's "poor theatre".Which is a theatre that is hardly modified by the stage setting and other visual things on stage, he (Grotowsky) goes on to say that they a supplementary although necessary occasionally (Grotowski1968:19). For him an actor makes a total gift of himself, i.e. his/her psychic and bodily powers are only needed to make theatre. It seems Magariro Street Theatre uses this concept mainly because of the performance space they use. They perform on an arena stage in first street Harare, where there are no rooms for actors to go and change their costume during scene changes. So one can say that they use "poor theatre" more out of the demands of performances than from a deliberate consciousness to follow Grotowski's philosophy of "poor theatre" .

5.0 Conclusion
Costume is very necessary, it plays a crucial role in characterisation and combines well with audible effects. The main challenge is the type of stage where performances take place. As noted before they cannot change their costumes with the changing of scenes due to the fact that they have no changing rooms. Costume is the only component of stage scenery which can aid visual effects since they do not use other stage scenery like lighting and set props.